6.6.2: Gender and Race-Related Stress

Research on the impact of racism on the general health of African Americans has consistently shown that racial discrimination is associated with depression, substance abuse, anxiety, and distress (Jones et al. 2007; Karlsen and Nazroo 2002; Taylor and Turner 2002; Williams et al. 2003). Research studies have also considered possible factors that can moderate these issues (Fischer and Shaw 1999; Jones et al. 2007). That is, there may be other factors in the identity of an individual that may lessen the impact of race-related stress. One such research study considered the role that gender may have on such stress (Greer et al. 2009).

The study consisted of a survey of 183 individuals who were self-identified African American students at a mid-sized university. Of these 183 individuals, 121 identified themselves as women, and the remaining 62 identified themselves as men. Individual experiences of race-related stress were measured using the Index of Race Related Stress: Brief Version (Utsey 1999). This scale is based on a conceptualization of race-related stress based on individual racism, cultural racism, and institutional racism. Individual racism refers to racial experiences occurring on a personal level. Cultural racism refers to experiences of inferiority of African American culture. Institutional racism refers to experiences of racial inequalities in the form of practices and policies of societal institutions. Hence, this measurement instrument has three dimensions. Individual racism has six indicators, cultural racism has ten indicators, and institutional racism has six indicators. The statements associated with these indicators are given in Table 6.13. Everyone scored each statement using the five-point Likert scale detailed in Table 6.14.

Table 6.13 Index of Race-Related Stress: Brief Version (Utsey 1999).

Dimension 1: Individual Racism
1.	Sales people and clerks did not say thank you or show other forms of courtesy and respect when you shopped at some White/non-Black owned businesses.
2.	While shopping at a store, or when attempting to make a purchase, you were ignored as if you were not a serious customer or didn't have any money.
3.	While shopping at a store the sales clerk assumed that you couldn't afford certain items.
4.	White people or other non-Blacks have treated you as if you were unintelligent and needed things explained to you slowly or numerous times.
5.	You were the victim of a crime and the police treated you as if you should just accept it as part of being Black.
6.	Whites/non-Blacks have stared at you as if you didn't belong in the same place with them; whether it was a restaurant, theater, or other place of business.
Dimension 2: Cultural Racism
1.	You notice that crimes committed by White people tend to be romanticized, whereas the same crime committed by a Black person is portrayed as savagery, and the Black person who committed it, as an animal.
2.	You have observed situations where other Blacks were treated harshly or unfairly by Whites/non-Blacks due to their race.
3.	You have observed the police treat Whites/non-Blacks with more respect and dignity than they do Blacks.
4.	You notice that the media plays up those stories that cast Blacks in negative ways, usually accompanied by a large picture of a Black person looking angry or disturbed.
5.	You seldom hear or read anything positive about Black people on radio, TV, in newspapers, or history books.
6.	You have been given more work, or the most undesirable jobs at your place of employment while the White/non-Black of equal or less seniority and credentials is given less work, and more desirable tasks.
7.	You have observed that White kids who commit violent crimes are portrayed as “boys being boys,” while Black kids who commit similar crimes are wild animals.
8.	You have heard or seen other Black people express a desire to be White or to have White physical characteristics because they disliked being Black or thought it was ugly.
9.	You notice that when Black people are killed by the police, the media informs the public of the victims criminal record or negative information in their background, suggesting they got what they deserved.
10.	You have heard reports of White people/non-Blacks who have committed crimes, and in an effort to cover up their deeds falsely reported that a Black man was responsible for the crime.
Dimension 3: Institutional Racism
1.	You have been threatened with physical violence by an individual or group of Whites/non-Blacks.
2.	You were treated with less respect and courtesy than Whites and other non-Blacks while in a store, restaurant, or other business establishment.
3.	You were passed over for an important project although you were more qualified and competent than the White/non-Black person given the task.
4.	You have been subjected to racist jokes by Whites/non-Blacks in positions of authority and you did not protest for fear they might have held it against you.
5.	You have heard racist remarks or comments about Black people spoke with impunity by White public officials or other influential White people.
6.	You were refused an apartment or other housing; you suspect it was because you're Black.

Table 6.14. The Likert scale used to score the responses for the Index of Race-Related Stress: Brief Version.

0	Event never happened to me.
1	Event happened but did not bother me.
2	Event happened and I was slightly upset.
3	Event happened and I was upset.
4	Event happened and I extremely upset.

The Index of Race Related Stress: Brief Version has been extensively conceptualized, validated, and studied in terms of reliability (Utsey 1999). This measurement system is based on a reanalysis of a longer measurement scale with respect to factor validity. The reanalysis revealed a smaller form of the system that coincided well with established conceptualizations of race-related stress. The new measurement system was also assessed based on criterion validity, and the reliability was verified using internal consistency reliability.

The mental health of the individuals in the study was assessed using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Derogatis et al. 1974). There are 58 indicators based on self-reporting that measure several dimensions of psychiatric symptoms. There are five dimensions that specifically measure anxiety (6 items), somatization (12 items), obsessive compulsiveness (8 items), interpersonal sensitivity (7 items), and depression (11 items). The indicators were answered using a four-point Likert scale with values 0 (not at all distressed), 1 (a little distressed), 2 (quite a bit distressed), 3 (extremely distressed). Larger scores for each of these dimensions indicate higher degrees of psychological distress. The measurement system is too extensive to describe here.

This measurement system is a standard instrument used in psychology and psychiatry. The original research paper reported that a series of studies were used to establish the factorial and criterion validity and the reliability of the measure. The internal consistency reliability was also established by the authors.